Pre-Contact Farming and Associated Technologies of Cultivation, Part I

 

By John Nass, Jr.

Editor, President Mon-Yough Chapter #3                                                                          

Introduction

      With summer finally here and gardening in full-swing, I thought there might be interest in pre-contact farming by Native Americans since many of the cultigens grown today were first domesticated in the Americas. The three groupings that played a significant role in the daily caloric intake were maize, beans, and cucurbits in the of squashes and pumpkins.  The methods employed by Native Americans are loosely used today by gardeners as opposed to full-time farmers. 

     This issue of volume 7 will focus upon the field methods employed. The second issue will consider the technologies used to both produce food, but also the tools used to process such foods.

     While countless hours have been spent examining the evolution of farming and  its impact upon social systems and settlement patterns in the eastern Woodlands of North America, Americas, one component seemingly omitted in the conversation has been technology and associated behaviors (strategies and tactics) to create and maintain gardens and agricultural fields. My interest are the strategies and tactics used by populations living within the lower Upper Ohio River Valley region and referred to as the Monongahela Tradition (Means 2007).

     At the heart of the matter is the cultivation of maize Between the 9^th and 11^th centuries AD, maize replaced components of the mixed plant complex used by Late Woodland groups living within the lower Upper Ohio River Valley and beyond (Johannessen 1993; King 1999; Simon 2000; Smith 1989; Wymer 1992, 1993). Whether this shift in subsistence was by choice or 

Left: Map of the Ohio Valley Locating the Boundaries of the Monongahela Tradition. 

by necessity (population growth), the heavy reliance upon maize by post AD 1000 populations is evident in stable carbon ratios derived from human bone collagen from adults from sites in West Virginia sites (Farrow 1985) and Pennsylvania (Table 1). In addition, the dietary shift is also evident when comparing the dental pathology of Late Woodland children and adults vs. Monongahela children and adults from Pennsylvania (Dirkmaat 1992; Morgan 2013a and b; Sciulli 1995). The incidences of dental pathologies are much higher in Late Prehistoric populations than in preceding Late Woodland groups. Stable carbon ratios from the West Virginia and Pennsylvania skeletal samples are accumulative over the lifetime of the individuals, but to achieve these levels would require a daily consumption of between 1-1.5 pounds of processed maize. Villages of 80-200 adults would thus require a considerable amount of maize and this can only be obtained via the cultivation of several hectares of land.

TABLE 1

Delta or Stable Carbon Isotopic Values for Sites from West Virginia and Pennsylvania
State	No. of Individuals	Radiocarbon Date (Calibrated)	Delta Value Range	Site Mean	Source
West Virginia
46Oh9	3	Ave. AD 1200	-9.29 to -10.88	-10.2	Farrow 1986
46Oh13	1	Ave. AD 1050		-11.59	Farrow 1986
46Oh16	5	Ave. AD 1225	-9.37 to -12.99	-10.59	Farrow 1986
Saddle Site	2	Ave. AD 1225	-9.06 to – 9.25	-9.16	Church and McDaniel 1995
Pennsylvania
Jones Site	3	AD 1050-1270 AD 1175-1210	-8.90 to -9.60	-9.0	Nass 200
Boyle Site	1	Avg. AD 1150		-12.2	Sciulli1995
Ryan Site	2	Avg. AD 1200		-15.30	Sciulli 1995

     Of interest to the author are the subsistence pursuits - strategies (the balance of farming and foraging) and tactics (when and where to plant, what seed to plant, the amount of area needed, how often to shift from one field to another) - employed by these pre-contact populations. This is of particular importance considering the stable carbon data which point to a high consumption of maize already in the Drew Phase, c. AD 1050-1200/1250.  Equally important is the type of artificially created environment used by pre-contact Monongahela populations for the cultivation of maize, the labor requirements, and the prevailing technology for the cultivation of maize, squash, and beans.  

     While answers to some relevant questions about farming strategies and tactics are difficult to provide, others questions might be answered by studying the preserved portions of prehistoric fields discovered in the Midwest and the southeast. Two types of fields have been identified: ridge and furrow and hills.

     In Wisconsin the remains of a buried Oneota field were described by Boszhardt (et al. 1984) and Gallagher (et al. 1985). The field consisted of ridges 5-26 cm in height by 23 to 120 cm in width. The ridges were separated by furrows 47-90 cm apart. A similar type of field has been identified at a Middle Mississippian site on the Macon Plateau (Kelly 1938) and possible Middle Mississippian fields on aerial imagery from Illinois (Fowler 1969).  A 17^th century lithography also shows Native Americans using a ridge and furrow system for planting maize. These do bear some resemblances to what are called “garden beds” in the upper Midwest (Moffat 1979; Riley and Freimuth 1979; Riley et al. 1981).

    

When a village would relocate, the selection of a new location for the community entailed several considerations, especially the suitability of the area for farming. Recent ideas regarding site location and soil productivity have evaluated the qualities of soils for supporting the farming of maize. Opinions regarding farming potential are based on modern soil descriptions. This is because the 

Above: 17^th century drawing of agricultural field being planted using rows.

  Left: 19^th century drawing of a garden           bed from southwestern Michigan.

 

prevailing county soil classification is designed more for post 1940s farming methods and for soil drainage relating to home construction and sanitation systems. It was also important to select soils that are compatible with the prevailing technology for land clearance and cultivation.

    Hart (1995) has proposed a subsistence-settlement model (a type of strategy) referred to as split-risk to explain changes in Monongahela settlement patterns after ca. AD1200. According to this model, within the uplands, village populations were scattered to take advantage not only of the longer 

Above: 17th century drawing of an agricultural field being planted using hills. 

growing season suggested by Johnson, but also the varied farming opportunities available in different topographic zones. The usage of varied environmental zones is not a new idea. The Hopi and Zuni Nations have employed the usage of varied ecological settings and landforms to ensure a sufficient maize harvested in the southwest by Hopi and Zuni kinship groups for centuries (Bonvillain 2002; Oswalt 2002). Family groups were specifically allocated plots of land according to its productivity. This was a strategy to insure parity among the kin groups. 

    

     A shift from subterranean storage of consumable resources to above ground, free-standing facilities adjacent to dwellings and eventually becoming attached to them also be came part of the build environment (Hart 1995) as settlement strategies shifted from seasonal abandonment to year-around occupation. 

     It is also understood that the choice of which agronomic strategies and tactics to employ were both under selection since both are examples of learned human behavior (Leonard and Jones 2002; Shennan 2002; Snow 2002). And since both social and situational learning transmit information within and between populations about their surroundings and life’s demands, learning can enhance the fitness of individuals just as differential reproduction or Darwinian selection enhances the biological fitness of individuals and populations (Hart and Trrell 2002).

     Native American agronomic models must also consider the nature of farming regarding the permanency of fields vs field expansion and/or periodic relocation of communities to new areas suitable for farming.

      Using Ֆ¹⁵N values from A.D. 15^th-16^th maize kernels and experimentation using modern maize kernels, Hart and Feranec (2020) were able to demonstrate Iroquoian agronomic practices were successful at maintaining nitrogen in their agricultural fields by maintaining organic matter in naturally fertile Alfesols and Inceptisols soils (Doolittle 2000, 2004; Mt. Pleasant 2011, 2015; Mt. Pleasant and Burt 2010; Hart and Feranec 2020; Schroeder 1999). In a different publication Hart and Winchell-Sweeney (2023) sought to further investigate Iroquoian agronomic practices relating to permanence of agricultural fields vs horticultural farming that required periodic expansion of existing and/or the clearance of new fields using differences in ꝸ¹⁵N ratios of charred maize macrobotanical remains. They argue that Native Americans, through a series of agronomic practices, were successful in maintaining needed nitrogen levels and, therefore, were able to maintain stable or permanent agricultural fields. While similar agronomic practices could be practices in the upper Ohio River Valley by Monongahela populations, the extension of their research to the upper Ohio River Valley is not possible at this time.

 

        

The Dugout Canoe in North America, Part II

 

By John Nass, Jr.

Editor, President Mon-Yough Chapter #3

Introduction

      In this issue of the Journal, I will discuss the dugout canoe. Whereas the kayak and the birch bark canoe are uniquely New World, the dugout is by far the oldest form of water transportation known to humans. I am intentionally excluding rafts, even though these could be used as a means of water transportation. Preserved examples of the dugout have been found in Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas.

     At the Kuahuqiano site in south China, excavations of a Neolithic age, submerged or waterlogged settlement recovered a dugout made from pine along with three paddles. Radiocarbon dating established its age as c. 8000 cal. BP (Jiang 2004).

     In Africa, the oldest preserved dugout is from Nigeria near Lake Chad.The dugout measures 8.4 m in length and 0.5 m in width. The canoe was crafted from Scots Pine. Multiple radiocarbon assays place the dugout between c. 8500 and 8000 BP (Garba 1996). Dugout canoes are still made and used in many countries in Africa.

 The oldest dugout found in Europe is the Pesse canoe and dates to the Mesolithic Period. The canoe was found in the Netherlands in 1955 and measures 3 meters in length. Radiocarbon dating places the canoe between c. 8040 -7510 BC (Zeist 1957). Several examples of dugouts have also been found across Europe, dating between 5000 BC. and the Iron Age.

Above: the Dunfuna canoe. Dufuna-canoe-theafricanhistory-comPics Art 03-07-09.24.07.jppg. 2021 

     In the Americas, dugout canoes were used for maintaining communication, and the movement of people, resources, and for warfare. Pre-contact examples dating back several thousand years have been found across South America and north across the United States and Canada. Along the Pacific coast, dugouts were used from northern California to southern Alaska, as well as interior rivers that drained into the Pacific, such as the Columbia River. Depending on geography, canoes were made from Douglas fir, Pacific Red Cedar, Pine, Cypress, White Oak and other suitable trees. Dugouts recovered from lakes and bogs have been found in  Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, Tennessee, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan and Wisconsin. 

     Florida leads all states in the number of recovered dugout canoes, with more than 400 having been found. The oldest canoe dates to the Archaic Period, c. 5000 BC, or roughly 7000 BP.

Left: 18th century drawing of Chitimacha tribe, Louisiana, using a dugout.

Above: Example of a well preserved dugout canoe from Arkansas, c. 800-1000 years in age (www.nationalparkstraveler.org). 
 

      To find a dugout is remarkable luck, but to find a cluster of canoes is truly astonishing. Up to11 canoes have been found by divers in Lake Mendota, Madison, Wisconsin, since 2021).  (www.wisconsinhistory.org). The oldest has been determined to be approximately 4,500 years old, making it the oldest found in the Great Lakes Region. The canoe was made from an elm tree. The most recent canoe has been dated to c. AD 800. On the floor of the 15-foot canoe were several net sinkers.

     Not all of the canoes were recovered from the lake bottom. Those that were removed are being treated and preserved by the Wisconsin Historical Society in Madison, an expensive and time consuming process. 

Left: 3,000 year-old canoe in its original resting place at the bottom of Lake Mendota. Photo credit: Tamara Thomsen, Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison.

  

   Dr. Sissel Schroeder, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin, Madison is one of the researchers analyzing the canoes. A link to a recent presentation is provided below:  

https://video.search.yahoo.com/search/video;_ylt=AwrFdByjcD9oGQIAQvYPxQt.;_ylu=Y29sbwNiZjEEcG9zAzMEdnRpZAMEc2VjA3Nj?hsimp=yhs-browser_wavebrowser&hspart=pty&type=A1-brwsr-%7E2025-5%7E&p=dugout+canoes+found&fr=yhs-pty-browser_wavebrowser&turl=https%3A%2F%2Ftse3.mm.bing.net%2Fth%3Fid%3DOVP.JfnQIPgc524xjTIQkNv07wHgFo%26pid%3DApi%26w%3D296%26h%3D156%26c%3D7%26p%3D0&rurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DINqLW1ZWsJ4&tit=The+Archaeology+of+Dugout+Canoes+-+Dr.+Sissel+Schroeder&pos=21&vid=6379bbb225c1b60a74f7d59be04493bc&sigr=bZqNF8HWov.V&sigt=MVaIagl9G9tI&sigi=pfMV34vpg357

     The functionality of dugouts is evident by their global distribution. Using early drawing made by explorers along the east coast (see image below), together  with extensive studies of archaeological recovered and ethnohistoric examples of Native American canoes, archaeologists, historical reenactors, and others have built examples of dugouts. A google search of the topic would locate a host of videos.

   

     One of the more interesting dugout construction stories is by the Archaeology Section, Pennsylvania State Museum, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, in 2005. Using a 20-foot long white pine log, the team made a replica based on the design of a c. AD 1250 dugout recovered from a pond in eastern Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. 

Above: A 1590 Theodor de Bry engraving based on a John White watercolor. 

     Using replicated adzes hafted to wooden handles, approximately 350 hours of labor was needed to finish the dugout. When finished, but builders moved the finished canoe to the Susquehanna River and tested its stability and navigable ability in the river.

Above: The finished canoe being tested in the Susquehanna River by the builders. Picture by Don Ciles.

     The first link below describes the the Pennsylvania Gugout Canoe Project, while the second link is an overview of dugout canoes found in Pennsylvania by Dr. Kurt Carr. 

https://r.search.yahoo.com/_ylt=AwrihuTE2kJo.wEASEoPxQt.;_ylu=Y29sbwNiZjEEcG9zAzMEdnRpZAMEc2VjA3Ny/RV=2/RE=1750421444/RO=10/RU=https%3a%2f%2fsusquehanna-wcha.net%2fdugout.htm/RK=2/RS=7RabVgOKve6GT0lo6E3uS67lbQM-

https://r.search.yahoo.com/_ylt=AwrihuTE2kJo.wEASEoPxQt.;_ylu=Y29sbwNiZjEEcG9zAzMEdnRpZAMEc2VjA3Ny/RV=2/RE=1750421444/RO=10/RU=https%3a%2f%2fsusquehanna-wcha.net%2fdugout.htm/RK=2/RS=7RabVgOKve6GT0lo6E3uS67lbQM-

     Interest in dugout canoes has only grown over the past decade as both Native American groups and boat builder enthusiasts have constructed designs based on ethnohistoric, ethnographic, and archaeologically recovered examples. A Native American built example is being paddled by members of the Ho-Chunk Nation from Green Bay to Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The annual event, in its fourth year, is organized by the Ho-Chunk Nation Tribal Historic Preservation Office. The last two links provided below describe the annual trip.  

  https://r.search.yahoo.com/_ylt=Awrjc.VW7UJo9wEAXO4PxQt.;_ylu=Y29sbwNncTEEcG9zAzIEdnRpZAMEc2VjA3Ny/RV=2/RE=1750426198/RO=10/RU=https%3a%2f%2ffox11online.com%2fnews%2flocal%2fho-chunk-canoe-journey-honors-wisconsins-indigenous-traditions-and-ancestral-waterways/RK=2/RS=42T2VsI_PEq9tCAq_9UMYs2.elY-

 https://s-video.innovid.com/DCO/1495374/1748943649237/media/v_40396136.kbps800.mp4

References

 Garba, Abubakar

1996  "The architecture and chemistry of a dug-out: the Dufuna Canoe in 1996  ethno-archaeological perspective". Berichte des Sonderforschungsbereichs. 268 (8): 193. S2CID 207909025.

 Jiang, Leping and Li Liu

2005  The discovery of an 8000-year-old dugout canoe at Kuahuqiao in the Lower Yangzi River, China. Antiquity AQY volume 79 issue 305 Cover and Front matter. Antiquity. 2005;79(305):f1-f6. doi:10.1017/S0003598X0050012X

 Zeist, W. van,

1957: The Mesolithic boat of Pesse, Nieuwe Drentse People's Almanac 75, 4-11.

 Las, Sarah, Florida Has More Archaeological Canoes than Anywhere Else in the World. Atlas Obscura, October 5, 2017.